Are Trigger Warnings Effective?

In this article in Clinical Psychological Science, Victoria Bridgland, Payton Jones, and Benjamin Bellet (Flinders University, Australia) report on their meta-analysis of recent studies of trigger warnings. The idea of such warnings is to alert students to upcoming content that may be distressing because of memories of negative experiences, helping them to emotionally prepare for (or completely avoid) the content. 

Trigger warnings first showed up on feminist message forums in the early days of the Internet to help women prepare for or sidestep content that was likely to remind them of past trauma. Over time, content warnings spread to university and other classrooms, museums, news media, and social media, and expanded to include a variety of potentially unsettling content, including microaggressions. An example: This article contains details that some readers may find distressing.

Trigger warnings have sparked a lively debate in universities. Some argue that content warnings are necessary to show sensitivity to historically marginalized groups and those who are psychologically vulnerable. Others have challenged trigger warnings as a hindrance to academic inquiry and questioned their efficacy, even arguing that warnings may make things worse for sensitive people. Bridgland, Jones, and Bellet explored these and other arguments by doing a meta-analysis of studies of university students and adults, all from WEIRD societies (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic). 

What did the analysis reveal? Here’s what Bridgland, Jones, and Bellet found in four key areas:

• Emotional reactions – The studies in the meta-analysis almost unanimously showed that trigger warnings did not mitigate students’ and adults’ distress about the identified material. Why would trigger warnings have so little impact? The authors suggest that most people are not skilled at emotional preparation – that is, “reappraising emotional content or using coping strategies.” Trigger warnings alert people to what’s coming but don’t give them ways to deal with their reactions when they hit. 

• Avoidance – The meta-analysis shows that trigger warnings did not lead most people to avoid the warned-about material. One study found that only 6 percent of people actually took the option of not viewing what had been flagged as potentially upsetting. It appears, say Bridgland, Jones, and Bellet, “that trigger warnings foster a forbidden-fruit effect in which warnings actually increase rather than decrease attraction to potentially negative material.” This has also been called the Pandora or teasing effect, and studies have shown that these effects are stronger among those who are most vulnerable. 

• Anxiety – Trigger warnings “reliably increased anticipatory anxiety about upcoming content,” say the researchers. “In theory, this anticipatory period could indicate that forewarned individuals are bracing themselves for a negative emotional experience. However… whatever bracing might occur during this anticipatory period is apparently completely ineffective. In other words, according to the current literature, this small increase in negative emotions induced by trigger warnings serves no productive purpose.” 

• Educational impact – The analysis found that trigger warnings had little or no effect on students’ and adults’ comprehension of the warned-about material. “Advocates claim that warnings in the classroom help to foster a safe environment for trauma survivors,” say the authors, “allowing them to prepare for distressing material and therefore enhancing their learning outcomes. However, we found that, at best, warnings have no effect on comprehension of material. At worst… trigger warnings have the potential to increase apprehension and anxiousness about attending class.” 

The bottom line, say Bridgland, Jones, and Bellet, is that trigger warnings are “fruitless,” have the added disadvantage of inducing “a period of uncomfortable anticipation,” and “should not be used as a mental health tool.” 

“A Meta-analysis of the Efficacy of Trigger Warnings, Content Warnings, and Content Notes” by Victoria Bridgland, Payton Jones, and Benjamin Bellet in Clinical Psychological Science, August 18, 2023 (Vol. 11, #5); Bridgland can be reached at victoria.bridgland@flinders.edu.au.